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Industrialization
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Transition from agrarian economies to economies based on the manufacture of goods. Done in factories with specialization
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Reasons for industrialization in Britain
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Raw materials (colonial empire), excellent transportation system via canals and rivers and later railroads, rise of capitalism, incentives for inventors (government rewards for new inventions), favorable government policies
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Spinning jenny
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Made the production of textiles exponentially cheaper.
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Steam engine
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With the introduction of the steam engine, water power was no longer necessary and factories could be built anywhere.
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Bessemer process
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Allowed steel to be mass-produced. And it was stronger and more resistant to rust.
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Parliament repealed the corn laws
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In 1846, parliament repealed the corn laws which levied steep tariffs on imported grain. This lowered food prices and less people were needed to farm so they moved to cities.
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Great exhibition
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Britain held an international exhibition to showcase their industrial might and greatness.
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French industrialization
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Industrialization took hold in France much later than Britain because of its relative lack of coal and iron deposits.
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Quentin canal
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Napoleon built a canal that connected Paris to iron and coal fields in the north
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Zollverein agreement
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Customs union which put a huge tariff on trade beyond member states, and promoted free trade within those German states. Allowed the small German states to compete economically with large unified countries like Great Britain and France
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German unification
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Thanks to industrialization, Prussia became the most powerful German state thanks to its coal and iron deposits and state funded efforts to build things like railways. They also created the Zollverein agreement. This led to a unified Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871.
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Industrialization in southern and eastern europe
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Industrialization struggled to take root in places like Portugal, Spain, Southern Italy, and Greece because they lacked large deposits of coal and iron. And spain was devastated after the peninsular war and lacked a stable government. Plus elites have more government control and they didn’t like industrialization
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Nobility’s opposition to industrialization
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They opposed industrialization because they would loose workers as they left for cities.
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Non-industrialized nations in the 1800s
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Russia and the Habsburg Empire still practiced primitive agriculture which sometimes led to massive and deadly famines
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Irish potato famine
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Potatoes were a staple food in Ireland. When a virus killed the potatoes, millions of the Irish poor died of starvation. Highlighted the importance of industrializing.
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2nd wave of industrialization
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Between 1870 and 1914, a second wave of industrialization spread throughout
Europe. Main building material became steel instead of iron, and the main fuel source became gasoline and electricity rather than coal and steam.
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Manchester
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Became one of the worlds most industrialized cities. 1st industrial park (place dedicated to factories). Led to a lot of pollution and other problems.
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Second wave of industrialization technologies
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Telegraph, telephone, vulcanization, new railroads
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Vulcanization
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Made rubber harder and more durable
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Impacts of railroads
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Railroads increased commerce by linking distant parts of a state into a national economy and railroads also facilitated more people moving from the country into cities as well
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Social effects of Industrial Revolution
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Industrialization led to the development of self-conscious classes because there was a very clear division of labor. Overcrowding in tenements lead to the spread of diseases.
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Factory act
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Mandated that a child under the age of 9 could not work in a factory, set maximum working hours for children, and mandated a minimum of 2 hours of school per day. Families falsified documents and bypassed the laws anyway
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Ten hours act
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Restricted the total number of working hours for children under 13. Families ignored it because they really needed the money
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Cult of domesticity
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The middle class had rigidly defined gender roles. The men worked in the city or at their factory, and women and children stayed home and made him sandwiches 🥪
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Companionate marriage
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The middle class was wealthy enough that they began marrying for love, rather than economic reasons.
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Conspicuous consumption
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The middle class began buying things to show off
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Middle class leisure culture
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Middle class needed places to relax and spend their time, while their workers were working. New parks, theaters, and sporting events
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Conservatism
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Political belief that argues governments are most stable when they uphold traditional and established norms and cultural institutions. Also says that humans are flawed and untrustworthy. Became popular because of the French Revolution
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Edmund Burke
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British conservative that argued that authority and hierarchy was part of the natural order of the universe and if those are in place, everything is chill. Didn’t think people were capable of governing themselves.
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Joseph de Maistre
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A French conservative that initially supported the revolution, but he opposed it because of the violence and the attitudes towards religion. He opposed the secularization of France. He said authority should be rooted in religious and moral principles and wanted the monarchy back.
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Klemens von Metternich
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Set the political tone for all of Europe (age of Metternich). Believed that only powerful central governments would bring order to the various states of Europe.
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Age of Metternich
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He ran the conference of Vienna, which had several goals. Make sure France could not become an aggressor, restore the balance of power, install legitimate government in conquered territories.
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Concert of Europe
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Metternich’s plan to impose conservatism on the entire European continent for stability. Argued for the need for organized religion, upheld the rights of the nobility and kept the balance of power. Led to a decades-long (100 years) period of peace.
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Austria passes the Carlsbad decrees
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Worked to suppress liberal and nationalist movements in the German states. Outlawed nationalist organizations, forcibly dissolved student organizations, and removed liberal college professors.
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Russian conservatism in the late 1800s
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The tzar claimed divine right to rule, used secret police to crush dissent, and upheld surfdom.
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War of Greece independence
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Greece was under the control of the very conservative ottomans. From 1821 to 1831, the Greeks engage in a series of rebellions. The ottomans initially helped but with the help of France, russia, and Britain (who wanted to weaken the ottomans) Greece won its independence in 1832
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The July revolution in France
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People rebelled against King Charles 10th who wanted to bring back France’s pre-revolution structures. In 1830 he cracked down on freedom of the press and voting rights which prompted a 3 day insurrection and Charles the 10th fled and was replaced by King Louis Phillipe who was just as conservative.
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Revolutions of 1848 in France
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Many people began demanding more liberal reforms of king phillipe. When there was a bread shortage, people flooded the streets of Paris. The king responded with military force, killing about 50 of them. The protesters built barricades to defend themselves. The protests forced Louis Philippe to abdicate. A provisional government restored the French Republic.
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Provisional governments new constitution
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New constitution created a strong executive. Napoleon's nephew was elected and became France's first president. He gained power and eventually was crowned emperor Napoleon III in 1870
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Prussian revolution of 1848
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Inspired by the French revolutions, the people began demanding more liberal reforms as well. Constructional reforms and voting rights, but most of all, the unification of Germany. As they protested, Prussian king Frederick William 4th agreed to give them a new constitution and to merge Prussia into a unified German state. But while he was negotiating, the king sent troops to end the protests and the revolution failed.
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Revolutions of 1848
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For all three of these revolutions of 1848, liberal reforms were demanded but conservative forces crushed those demands. Many of these governments reacted by becoming even more conservative
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Tzar Alexander 2nd's reforms
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Distressed at Russias defeat in the Crimean war (lost because he sent untrained serfs to their slaughter and triggered a peasant revolt). To end the rebellion, he enacted potent liberal reforms. Emancipated the serfs, created independent courts, and modernized Russia's military by industrializing. He was assassinated because he angered the nobility
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Sergei Witte
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Tzar Alexander 3rd's finance minister who modernized Russias economy by enacting protective tariffs and placed Russia's currency on the gold standard
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Revolution of 1905 (Russia)
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Russians appreciated a better economy, but many were still living in absolute poverty under an authoritarian tzar. Peasant uprisings, the nobles lack of power, and lack of industrialization led to revolution. The people demanded a more liberal government which then led to the October manifesto
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October Manifesto (1905)
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Tzar Alexander 3rd had his finance minister Sergei Witte to draft some reforms. Universal suffrage for men, citizenship for all Russians, freedom of speech, and legislative reform, but tzar retained veto power
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Liberalism
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A philosophy that emphasizes limited government and the rights of the individual. Popular sovereignty
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Utilitarianism
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Argues that actions should be judged based on whether ther increase the happiness of those affected by the action
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Socialism
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An ideology that calls for the redistribution of society's wealth and resources. Reaction to inequality in the Industrial Revolution
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Scientific socialism
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Marx was deeply distressed at the injustice of a society in which there was such a large gap between the rich and the poor classes. Communism!
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Communist Manifesto
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Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848. History obeys laws, moves through patterns and stages until it reaches its ultimate goal. Driving force of history was class structure
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Anarchism
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Teaches that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation
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Mass-based political parties
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As European countries extended the right to vote to more and more people, political parties had to appeal to more people to win. For example, liberals and conservatives had to incorporate more reforms because a lot of people wanted them.
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German Social Democratic Party
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General German Workers Association aimed to transform the capitalist system of private ownership of the means of production to social ownership of the means of production
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Sunday School Movement
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Women led movement that pushed for education for working class children
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Temerance Movement
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Women led movement that aimed to ban the manufacture and sale of alcohol
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Public Health movement
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Sought to remedy the high disease and mortality rate that occurred in British cities. People sought to sanitize cities by creating sewage systems and cleaning up the environment
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Educational reforms
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Between 1870 and 1914, the majority of European governments passed compulsory education laws to get boys and girls between the ages of 6-12 into School to give kids who couldn't work something to do and wanted to unify the population and create economic growth.
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1800s-1900s social reforms
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These reforms were led by governments
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Newcomen steam engine
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Designed to pump water out of the coal mines to increase production.
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